Water is essential for all living beings to survive. Despite the Earth being covered by about 71 per cent water-across oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, and other bodies — only a small fraction is fresh and usable. Oceans are vast, continuous expanses of saltwater, while seas, though smaller and land-enclosed, are directly linked to human livelihoods. However, freshwater makes up just 2.5 per cent of the Earth’s total water, with 98.8 per cent of it locked away in ice caps and underground aquifers. A mere 0.3 per cent is readily accessible in rivers, lakes, and the atmosphere. With the intensifying threat of climate change, rising populations, deforestation, air pollution, and soil degradation, the availability and management of freshwater will be critical in determining the future of life on Earth. For a country like India, the challenge is even more severe. Hosting 145 crore people on only 2.4 per cent of the world’s landmass, India’s water crisis is already taking a toll on health, agriculture, and urban infrastructure.
India holds about 4 per cent of the world’s freshwater resources and receives nearly 115 inches (or 2900 mm) of rainfall annually. However, this rainfall is highly uneven — both spatially and seasonally — with nearly 75 per cent falling between June and September. Moreover, most of India’s domestic needs (85 per cent) and a significant portion of agriculture (70 per cent) depend on groundwater. This makes the sustainability of aquifers absolutely crucial. According to the Central Water Commission, India receives about 3950 billion cubic meters (BCM) of precipitation annually. But after accounting for evaporation and other losses, only 1999 BCM is available, and just 1126 BCM is usable. Unfortunately, our total water demand for domestic and industrial use stands between 2800 to 3000 BCM annually — far exceeding the available supply.
India’s per capita water availability has drastically fallen — from 5100 cubic meters in 1951 to 1545 cubic meters in 2021 — crossing the water stress threshold of 1700 cubic meters. It is projected to decline further. States like Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, and western Uttar Pradesh are witnessing severe overexploitation of groundwater. As per the Central Ground Water Board, 17 per cent of blocks are already over-extracted. Moreover, inefficient agricultural practices such as flood irrigation are widespread, while modern methods like drip irrigation cover only 2.3 per cent of cultivated land. The Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY), which promotes efficient water use, still has a long way to go in terms of impact.
Urban India is also under pressure. Cities like Chennai, Delhi, and Bengaluru suffer from acute water shortages during summers, largely due to unplanned urban expansion. Adding to the crisis is the growing pollution of water bodies, further reducing the availability of clean, usable water.
To tackle these mounting challenges, a robust and integrated national water conservation strategy is the need of the hour. This strategy must align with our climate change mitigation plans and must address regional disparities — such as the depletion of groundwater in Punjab and Haryana, and drought-prone conditions in Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. Climate change is compounding the problem by altering rainfall patterns and triggering floods, droughts, landslides, and glacier-related disasters. Therefore, a comprehensive water management charter is required — one that addresses green water (rainwater stored in soil), blue water (surface freshwater), and grey water (wastewater from households) — starting from the village level and expanding nationally. Among the positive developments, the Jal Jeevan Mission, launched by Prime Minister Narendra Modi in 2019, stands out. At the time, only 3 crore out of 18 crore rural households had access to clean tap water. As of early 2025, this number has increased to 15.44 crore — nearly 80 per cent coverage. This initiative has saved countless lives by reducing waterborne diseases and has emerged as a model for preventive healthcare.
However, the focus at the policy level still leans heavily toward managing blue water, with little attention to green water, despite mentions in the National Water Mission. What India needs now is a landscape — level approach to integrated watershed management. Different departments must stop working in silos and coordinate efforts for sustainable water conservation. One immediate solution could be the construction of water harvesting structures on forest, panchayat, and community lands. Such infrastructure would help in rainwater capture, aquifer recharge, and climate resilience. In Rajasthan, for instance, johads — small earthen dams built by communities — have proven effective in green water conservation. Historical engineering marvels like the Kundi Bhandara in Burhanpur, Madhya Pradesh, built during the Mughal era by Abdul Rahim Khan-I-Khana, also serve as inspiration. This system used underground tunnels and infiltration galleries to collect and transport groundwater, showcasing indigenous innovation centuries ahead of its time. In conclusion the water crisis is a pressing reality. Solutions do exist — in science, policy, and tradition. What is needed now is unified, visionary action and a long-term commitment to sustainable water use. As history and modern examples both show, innovation, integration, and community participation are key to securing India’s water future.
(The writer is former director general, Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education and former Principal Secretary, Agriculture, Horticulture, Government of Tripura. Views expressed are personal)
